The Moderating Effect of Privacy Concern on Intrinsic Motivation and Actual Travel Sharing in Social Media

Elisabet Dita Septiari1, Azizah Omar2*

1Universitas Atma Jaya Yogyakarta, Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta 55281, Indonesia

2School of Management, Universiti Sains Malaysia,11800 USM, Penang, Malaysia

*Corresponding Author’s Email: aziemar@usm.my

Abstract

This research examines privacy concerns as a moderator in the relationship between multidimensional intrinsic motivation (knowledge, accomplishment, and stimulation) and actual travel sharing in social media. So far, research on privacy concerns and intrinsic motivation in tourism is relatively rare. A cross-sectional survey of 409 Indonesian millennial domestic tourists was conducted, and data was analysed using partial least squares (PLS). According to the findings of this study, knowledge, accomplishment, stimulation, and privacy concern all had positive effects on actual travel sharing behaviour in social media. However, privacy concerns only moderated knowledge and travel sharing on social media. This study supports the paradox of privacy-concerned roles in social media and the importance of multidimensional intrinsic motivation in encouraging travel sharing. Thus, the managerial implications for tourism marketers are to develop low-budget promotion through tourists’ voluntary sharing on social media.

Keywords: Intrinsic Motivation; Self-Determination Theory; Actual Travel Sharing; Privacy Concern; Social Media

Introduction

Nowadays, smart mobile devices and social media have become part of people's daily lives (Huang, 2017; Sotiriadis, 2017). The rapid growth of mobile devices has had some impacts on travelers' ability to find and share information (Arica et al. 2022), in which, by using their mobile devices, they are able to easily collect and produce information about their travel experiences (Ana & Istuador, 2019) through social media such as Facebook, Instagram, Flickr, Youtube, Twitter, and Twitter TripAdvisor. Their travel information on social media serves as a repository, simplifying travellers' planning, sharing of travel information, and interaction among themselves (Chai-arayalert, 2020).

Social media convert travellers into tourism content contributors rather than only being an audience, transforming them from receivers or observers to be the participators (Choi et al. 2019; Wong, Lai & Tao, 2019). Travelers can share their knowledge, experiences, opinions, reviews, ratings, and recommendations (Arica et al. 2022) from their trips with others via social media, using photos, videos, texts, and audio, with or without other parties seeking information (Oliveira, Araujo & Tam, 2020). The content travellers usually share in the pre-trip, during, or post-trip stages includes holiday attributes (such as prices, weather, scenery, and other attractions), feelings, thoughts, and desires about features of a holiday (Oliveira, Araujo & Tam, 2020). Before a trip, travellers use social media information provided by other travellers and businesses as a source to plan their trips. During or after the trip, travellers share their experiences to reflect their feelings, reviews, and desires about their travels (Arica et al. 2022). These can increase traveller engagement and provide memorable experiences (Kim, 2018).

Travelers' willingness to share their travel information is a critical pillar for tourism, and data published on social media by travellers can create a vital database in tourism. However, not all travellers are willing to share their travel experiences, although many of them consume information from social media. Most of the tourism information is published on social media by small numbers of travellers (Arica et al. 2022; Luo et al. 2019). Privacy becomes one of the barriers to sharing travel experiences on social media (Oliveira, Araujo & Tam, 2020). Arica et al. (2022) also encouraged academicians to research privacy concerns from the viewpoint of smart tourism because privacy concerns can disturb the development of virtual tourism communities and threaten smart tourism sustainability.

Apart from personal privacy concerns, understanding the personal motivations that drive travellers to share their travel experiences is also important. This study discovers personal motivation through self-determination theory (SDT). Motivation is treated as a volitional construct in SDT, as opposed to a unitary construct in other motivation theories. It categorises motivation as intrinsic and extrinsic based on autonomy level (de Vries et al. 2017). This study, in turn, focuses on intrinsic motivation by assuming that intrinsic motivation, as the highest level of autonomy, is more powerful in driving behaviour than extrinsic motivation. According to Vallerand (1997), intrinsic motivation could be divided into three dimensions, but most researchers employ it as a unidimensional construct. The three dimensions include motivation to know (knowledge), accomplishment, and experiencing stimulation (stimulation) (Vallerand, 1997).

This study examines how the three dimensions of intrinsic motivation drive travellers to share their travel experiences on social media and how privacy concerns affect the relationship between intrinsic motivation and travel sharing. The previous research was limited to including privacy concerns as moderators of motivation and travel sharing behaviour. However, several earlier studies discovered that privacy concerns can weaken the strength of a direct relationship (Krafft, Arden & Verhoef, 2017; Liang & Shiau, 2018). In the current study, privacy concern is included as a moderating variable. The novel aspect of this study is the integration of SDT on three dimensions of intrinsic motivation and privacy concern as an integrated model to explain travel sharing in social media. The current study adds to the tourism literature by recognising the distinctions between intrinsic motivation dimensions and the interactions between intrinsic motivation and privacy concerns in travel sharing behaviors. The current study can provide tourism companies with useful insight into how to focus on intrinsic motivation to save money and treat travellers with high privacy concerns.

Literature Review

Social Media and Tourism

The role of social media in the tourism industry has recently become more important (Wong, Lai & Tao, 2019). Social media converts travellers from receivers or observers to contributors of tourism content (Choi et al. 2019, Wong, Lai & Tao, 2019). It touches the customer's experience before purchasing the trip, during the trip, and after the trip (Pop et al. 2022). According to Choi et al. (2019), consumers follow three purchase decision processes when traveling: information search, evaluation, and purchase.

In the stage of information search before purchasing the trip, social media is utilised as a repository for searching for information (Chai-Arayalert, 2020; Pop et al. 2022; Wong, Lai & Tao, 2019). Since the tourism industry is intangible, potential travellers prefer to explore social media information such as recommendations, reviews, and opinions (Pop et al. 2022; Wong, Lai & Tao, 2019). Social media information helps potential travellers shape their expectations and desire to visit a destination (Pop et al. 2022;). The intention to visit a destination can be raised by videos or photos uploaded on social media (Ioannou, Tussyadiah & Miller, 2021). Before purchasing a trip, potential travellers search for information on social media for a variety of reasons, including completing their information, exploring the experiences and opinions of others, receiving trusted recommendations, and comparing information from companies with information from peers. They rely on trusted recommendations showing some previous travel experiences to ensure that their decision is good (Lojo, 2020; Muslim et al. 2020).

Travelers can make purchase decisions before or during their trips. In this stage, potential travellers choose and purchase their travel package (Pop et al. 2022). The information from social media helps the potential customers select where and when they can buy the travel package. During the trips, travellers can adjust their purchase decision for any unexpected conditions or changing plans using recommendations from social media (Ana & Istuador, 2019; Lojo, 2020). Travelers also use social media to save travel memories, receive compliments from followers, and promote their trip (Chai-Arayalert, 2020; Choi et al. 2019; Wong, Lai & Tao, 2019). After the trip, travellers use social media to post their trip experiences as late posts (Ana & Istuador, 2019; Auliya, 2020). They evaluate the travel experience from their documentation and compare their expectations with their real experiences or with other travelers' experiences on social media. They can then share their travel experience in a positive or negative information frame, which can influence the decision of potential travellers (Pop et al. 2022).

Intrinsic Motivation

SDT is a human development theory that explains the individual's innate motivational tendency for learning, growing, and connecting with others if their support systems fulfil their requirements. It differs from other behavioural theories that try to form and manage motivation from outside (Ryan & Deci, 2020). SDT explains volitional action, which is based on autonomy levels or the degree of self-driven factor. This theory explains how to distinguish between self-determined and self-regulation types (Ferrer et al. 2022; Su, Yang & Huang, 2022). The ranges are from intrinsic motivation, which is self-determined and involves internal self regulation, to extrinsic motivation, which is not self-determined and involves external control regulation (Ferrer et al. 2022).

People engaged in certain activities for their innate interest and joy reflect intrinsic motivation. The motivation comes from their satisfaction, not from external rewards or punishment (Ryan & Deci, 2020). Intrinsic motivation results in a spontaneous reward or pleasure, such as enjoyment, amusement, or excitement, when performing an activity (Ryan & Deci, 2020). Vallerand (1997) suggested that intrinsic motivation can be employed as a multidimensional construct, although many researchers posit it as unidimensional. The types of intrinsic motivation include intrinsic motivation to know, intrinsic motivation to experience stimulation, and behavioural intrinsic motivation to accomplish (Vallerand, 1997).

Knowledge is an activity driven by the fun and satisfaction of learning, exploring, or understanding something new (Ferrer et al. 2020). It has also been known as "curiosity" (Duan et al. 2020; Vallerand, 1997). People with a high level of motivation to know have a curiosity-driven desire to understand something new (Ferrer et al. 2022; Ryan & Deci, 2020). Curiosity arises as a result of unpleasant feelings caused by a gap in knowledge and understanding, and access to new information alleviates the unpleasant feeling (Duan et al. 2020). Previous research found that a higher level of curiosity about knowledge increased people's behavioural engagement. Knowledge has an effect on consumers' engagement in social commerce (Zhang et al. 2020), event participation, and academic engagement (Ferrer et al. 2022). In this study, knowledge was reflected in the satisfaction of seeking information and learning new things from sharing travel experiences.

Accomplishment refers to an activity driven for the pleasure and satisfaction of accomplishing something (Ferrer et al. 2022), creating something new, or performing any difficult tasks (Malchrowicz-Mośko, Zarębski & Kwiatkowski, 2020). The satisfaction comes from the process of accomplishing something rather than the outcome (Vallerand, 1997). Intrinsic motivation has a potential to significantly increase engagement (Zhang et al. 2020). A prior study found that consumer engagement in social commerce was determined by accomplishment (Zhang et al. 2020). In contrast, accomplishment has no impact on academic engagement (Ferrer et al. 2022) or event participation. Because of the inconsistency of achievement results, the purpose of this study is to discover the effects on travel sharing behavior. Travelers might share their experiences on social media in view of the pleasure in creating interesting content or being satisfied with their mastery of making content.

Stimulation motivation deals with an activity driven by the desire to experience joy, fun, and enthusiasm (Zhang et al. 2020). It focuses on people who do something to enjoy pleasurable sensory experiences such as aesthetic, peak, and sensory (Vallerand, 1997). Zhang et al. (2020) demonstrated that the intention to participate in online and offline charity events is significantly influenced by stimulation. Zhang et al. (2020) also found that customer engagement in social commerce is positively determined by stimulation. Entertainment reflecting stimulation also influences consumers' brand-related social media activities and their intention to create user- generated content.

This study supposes three hypotheses based on previous literature: H1: Knowledge affects actual travel sharing in social media.

H2: Accomplishment affects actual travel sharing in social media. H3: Stimulation affects actual travel sharing in social media

Privacy Concern

Individuals' perceptions of the dangers and potential risks of sharing information are considered a privacy concern. They encourage people to be lurkers or keep their private information private. They will hide the private information if the individual feels that the risk of disclosing the privacy is high or if they lack control over the information and do not benefit from sharing their private information (Nuzulita & Subriadi, 2020). However, there is a privacy paradox in e-commerce and social media because of the inconsistency between sharing privacy information and their high level of privacy concern (Gerber, Gerber & Volkamer, 2018; Ioannou Tussyadiah & Miller, 2021). This inconsistency encourages this study to examine the effects of motivation on travel sharing behaviour.

Previous research discovered that privacy concerns are a barrier to information sharing on social media. Oliveira, Araujo & Tam (2020) found that security and privacy concerns have a negative effect on travel sharing on social media. Similarily, Hew et al. (2017) found that privacy concerns have a negative effect on user-generated content intentions. Users are disturbed by excessive personal information captured and stored by unauthorised parties, which raises their level of privacy concern. Because of their high level of privacy concern, social media users may refrain from sharing private information on social media. Based on this evidence, it leads to the following hypothesis:

H4: Privacy concern influence actual travel sharing in social media.

This study has two reasons why privacy concerns are a moderating variable. First, people who are concerned about their privacy have a negative attitude toward sharing their personal information. They are concerned that their data will put them in danger if it is misused for personal data exposure (Vu, Law & Li, 2019). Secondly, privacy concerns create a high level of hesitance to disclose their private information on social media (Bhandari & Bansal, 2018). Previous studies investigated the moderating impact of privacy concern, which reduced the direct relationship's strength, such as the relationship of benefit and cost perception on permission for interactive marketing; the relationship of fear of missing out and continuation intention on social networking sites; and the relationship of customer satisfaction and repurchase intention for airline e-tickets (Liang & Shiau, 2018). Therefore, for people with a high level of privacy concern, intrinsic motivation will have less effect on their sharing behavior, and vice versa (refer to figure 1).

H5: PC moderates the effect of motivation on actual travel sharing in social media. H5a: PC moderates the effect of knowledge on actual travel sharing in social media.

H5b: PC moderates the effect of accomplishment on actual travel sharing in social media. H5c: PC moderates the effect of stimulation on actual travel sharing in social media.

Figure 1: Research Model

Research Methodology

The questionnaire was adapted from several previous studies, including intrinsic motivation (adapted from Zhang et al. (2020), privacy concern (adapted from Oliveira, Araujo & Tam (2020), and travel sharing behaviour (adapted from Oliveira et al. (2020). All of the constructs were measured using four items of reflective questioning. The 5-point Likert scale was used to answer the questions in the range of 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).

The target population was Indonesian millennial domestic tourists who shared their travel experiences on social media. Using judgmental sampling, the detailed requirements for sampling included (1) the Indonesian millennial generation, (2) having experience as domestic tourists at least one year before, and (3) having shared their travel experiences during or after travelling via social media.

An online survey was carried out during the COVID-19 pandemic. Of the total 457 collected responses, the total number of respondents in this study was 409, meaning a response rate of 89.5%. The data were then analysed using partial least square structural equation modelling (PLS- SEM) to test the model and justify the construct relationship (Hair et al. 2018). PLS was employed to analyse the outer model measurement and the inner model measurement.

Results

Demographics Respondents

The results of the characteristics of respondents are represented in Table 1. The majority of respondents in this study (58.2%) were female, with only 41.8% being male. The distribution of age groups was 1% from the older group aged 41 to 44 years old, 11% from the group aged 37 to 40 years old, 18% from the group aged 33 to 36 years old, 30% from the group aged 29 to 32 years old, and 39% from the younger group aged 25 to 28 years old. For the time spent on social media, most respondents spent more than 3 hours on average every day (51.1%), followed by 1 to 3 hours every day (46.7%), and less than 3 hours (2%). Lastly, most of the respondents travelled either with their friends (30.8%) or with family (31.5%) rather than alone (19.1%) or with their spouses (18.6%).

Table 1: Characteristics of the Respondents

Outer Model Measurement

Outer model measurement is used to analyse the validity and reliability of the measurement model. For the reflective measurements model, the validity and reliability assessments are cross-loading, composite reliability (CR), and Averate variance extracted (AVE). The rule of thumb for validity and reliability, according to Hair et al. (2018), is a minimum cross-loading value of 0.7, a composite variable greater than 0.7, and a minimum AVE value of 0.5.The results in Table 2 indicated that the construct and the indicators were established and fulfilled the requirements of reliability and convergent validity.

Table 2: Validity and Reliability Indicator

The discriminant validity was evaluated to determine the extent to which indicators measured one construct differently than indicators measuring another. Table 3 shows that the square root of the AVE for each construct (boldly written) was higher than the intercorrelations of other constructs, suggesting that discriminant validity was established.

Table 3: Discriminant Validity Indicator

Inner model Measurement

Table 4 shows that the adjusted R2 was 0.47, meaning 47% of the variation in travel sharing on social media can be explained by knowledge, accomplishment, stimulation, and privacy concern. The predictive relevance (Q2) was 0.462, which indicated that the power of independent variables to predict dependent variables was significant. All of the intrinsic motivation dimensions: knowledge (β = 0.280, p = 0.001), accomplishment (β = 0.178, p = 0.005), and stimulation (β = 0.281, p = 0.001), had positive effects on travel sharing in social media; therefore, H1, H2, and H3 were significantly supported. Privacy concerns had a positive effect on social media travel sharing (β = 0.207, p = 0.001), indicating that H4 were also supported.

Table 4: Inner Model Measurement Result

Moderating Effect

Table 5 shows that the moderating effect of privacy concern on the relationship between knowledge and social media travel sharing was significant only for H5a (β = -0.139, t = 3.407, p

= 0.001).

Table 5: Moderating Effect Result

Figure 2 describes the simple slope analysis of the interaction of PC* (privacy concern* knowledge). The figure illustrates two axes, where the X-axis refers to knowledge and the Y-axis refers to travel sharing in social media. The slopes of interaction for low levels of privacy concern (blue line) were upward from left to right, representing a positive moderating effect with the most prominent slope. The result indicated that the moderation effect of PC on knowledge and travel sharing in social media was more effective at low levels of privacy concern. PC strengthened the effect of knowing about travel sharing on social media.

Figure 2: Interaction Slope of Privacy Concern and Knowledge

Discussion

This study enhances the existing literature by identifying the effects of intrinsic motivation dimensions (knowledge, accomplishment, and stimulation) and privacy concerns on actual travel sharing in social media for Indonesian domestic tourists. So far, research into the dimensions of intrinsic motivation and privacy concern in tourism has yielded limited results.Based on the findings, all of the dimensions of intrinsic motivation were found to have a positive effect on actual travel sharing on social media. It indicated that intrinsic motivation dimensions had a different effect but produced positive behaviour. Knowledge, accomplishment, and stimulation positively affected actual travel sharing on social media. As a result, tourists share their travel experiences on social media when they are motivated by curiosity to learn about and explore the tourist destination, gain something while traveling, and participate in enjoyable and entertaining activities.

However, privacy concerns had a positive effect on actual social media travel sharing, demonstrating the inconsistency finding. Some previous empirical studies found that privacy concerns could encourage people to keep their private information private (Ioannou, Tussyadiah & Miller, 2021; Nuzulita & Subriadi, 2020). There are some reasons to explain it. First, people with a high level of privacy concern calculate their benefits, such as financial discounts, increased popularity, and socialisation improvements, in exchange for their privacy information on social media (Gerber, Gerber & Volkamer, 2018). In contrast, the cost of sharing their privacy is lower than the benefit because they trust that the social media companies can protect their information (Ioannou, Tussyadiah & Miller, 2021). Second, the type of travel information shared in social media is miscellaneous (such as expenses, accommodation, and activities during travel, as well as tourism destinations and feelings), which may pose less of a risk than identity or biographic information (Ioannou, Tussyadiah & Miller, 2021). As a result, people who are concerned about their privacy have measured and filtered which information about their travel sharing is not harmful to them.

According to the moderator analysis, the moderation effect of PC on knowledge and travel sharing in social media was more effective when privacy concerns were low. Tourists with a low level of privacy concern did not calculate all possible costs and benefits when sharing their travel experiences. Therefore, they want to disclose their travel experiences to share their curiosity about exploring the tourist destination. Nonetheless, privacy concerns had no effect on the relationship between achievements and stimulation and actual travel-sharing behaviors. People with intrinsic motivation, driven by self-determination, were found to have a high level of self-esteem and a lower level of privacy need. Another reason is that the respondents in this study were millennials engaged with social media (Zhang et al. 2020). They could adjust how much private data should be shared with others by managing the privacy settings for public visibility and choosing their social media friends (van Schaik et al. 2018) and removing the details of personal information without regulating their level of disclosure (Koohang, Paliszkiewicz & Goluchowski, 2018).

Conclusion

This study confirms valuable findings from previous literature in SDT that intrinsic motivation is essential for driving behaviour and is better understood as multidimensional than unidimensional. Based on the results, knowledge, accomplishment, and stimulation had a positive effect on actual travel sharing in social media. It indicated that both emotional motivation (experience stimulation) and cognitive motivation (knowledge and stimulation) can encourage tourists to share their travel experiences. The inconsistent findings from previous literature about privacy concern indicated that people with a high level of privacy concern do not always become lurkers. They will share their travel experiences on social media if they consider getting more benefits than the cost and can manage the risk of sharing on social media.

The combination of tourism, social media, sharing behaviour, and SDT theory becomes the contribution of this study to the previous literature in tourism. Given the intrinsic motivation of actual travel sharing behavior, developing low-budget promotion through tourists' voluntary sharing on social media can be beneficial. Their travel sharing can influence the potential tourists in their information search, evaluation, and purchase of tourism packages.

There are some limitations in this study. First, this study is only focused on domestic Indonesian tourists, and tourists from other countries with different cultures might have different actual travel sharing behaviours and privacy concerns. Therefore, a comparative study for future research can be conducted. Another limitation is that this study only focused on intrinsic motivation dimensions. Based on SDT, there are two types of motivation: intrinsic and extrinsic. Future research, at this point, can add extrinsic motivation to the research framework.

Conflict of Interest

The author declares that he has no conflict of interests.

Acknowledgement

The author is thankful to the institutional authority for completion of the work.

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